The onset of significant Joule heating can be determined by constructing an " Ohm's Law plot ", wherein the current through the capillary is measured as a function of applied potential.
12.
Peaks in the differential current vs . applied potential plot are indicative of redox processes, and the magnitudes of the peaks in this plot are proportional to the concentrations of the various redox active species according to:
13.
At low fields, the current is proportional to the applied potential ( Ohm's Law ), whereas at higher fields the current deviates from the straight line as heating results in decreased resistance of the buffer.
14.
Therefore, activation energy, ion mobility ( diffusion ) and concentration, wire resistance, surface hindrance including bubble formation ( causes electrode area blockage ), and entropy, require a greater applied potential to overcome these factors.
15.
For pipelines constructed from pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipe ( PCCP ), the techniques used for cathodic protection are generally as for steel pipelines except that the applied potential must be limited to prevent damage to the prestressing wire.
16.
Electrocaloric materials were the focus of significant scientific interest in the 1960s and 1970s, but were not commercially exploited as the electrocaloric effects were insufficient for practical applications, the highest response being 2.5 degrees Celsius under an applied potential of 750 volts.
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