The Bureau of Reclamation built one of the first electrodialysis plants in the United States to process the water before it is delivered to users.
12.
In electrodialysis, additional mixing of the solution may be obtained by applying an elevated voltage where current-induced convection occurs as gravitational convection or electroconvection.
13.
Brine treatment technologies may include : membrane filtration processes, such as reverse osmosis; ion exchange processes such as electrodialysis or crystallizers employing mechanical vapour recompression and steam.
14.
Since the 1980s, these separation processes, along with electrodialysis, are employed in large plants and, today, a number of experienced companies serve the market.
15.
As with RO, electrodialysis systems require feed pretreatment to remove species that coat, precipitate onto, or otherwise " foul " the surface of the ion exchange membranes.
16.
Other recent developmental work has focused on integrating reverse osmosis with electrodialysis to improve recovery of valuable deionized products, or to minimize the volume of concentrate requiring discharge or disposal.
17.
These ion-exchange membranes, which are made of highly cross-linked ion-exchange resins that allow passage of ions, but not of water, are used for electrodialysis.
18.
Exemplary applications of ion-exchange membranes utilized in electrodialysis and EDR include seawater desalination, industrial wastewater treatment of highly scaling waters, food and beverage production, and other industrial wastewaters.
19.
Ex situ treatments include ion exchange using perchlorate-selective or nitrite-specific resins, bioremediation using packed-bed or fluidized-bed bioreactors, and membrane technologies via electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
20.
The major application of electrodialysis has historically been the desalination of brackish water or seawater as an alternative to RO for potable water production and seawater concentration for salt production ( primarily in Japan ).
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