In fishes, salamanders, caecilians, and reptiles, the body musculature remains segmented as in the embryo, though it often becomes folded and overlapping, with epaxial and hypaxial masses divided into several distinct muscle groups.
12.
The exception is " Trichosurus ", which remarkably among marsupials has shifted the hypaxial muscles from the epipubic to the pelvis, exploying a more placental-like breathing, having lost the benefits of the epipubic in regards to lung ventilation.
13.
PAX3 is generally expressed at its highest levels during embryonic development and is expressed at a lesser degree during the fetal stages; it is expressed in migrating hypaxial cells and dermomyotome cells, but is not expressed at all during the development of facial muscle.
14.
Azizi " et al . " constructed a mathematical model to predict the final hypaxial fiber angle, AGR and dorsoventral height, where : ?x = longitudinal extension ratio of the segment ( portortion of final longitudinal length after contraction to initial longitudinal length ), ? = final fiber angle, ? = initial fiber angle, f = initial fiber length, and ?x and ?f = longitudinal and fiber strain respectively.
15.
Only placentals, and possibly the early mammaliformes " Megazostrodon " and " Erythrotherium ", lack them; in thylacines and sparassodonts, they appear to have become primarily cartilaginous and the osseous element has become strongly reduced or even absent . " Trichosurus " mimicked placentals in shifting hypaxial muscles attachment sites from the epipubic to the pelvis, losing the respiratory benefits ( see below ), but otherwise retains large epipubics.
16.
Via this equation, we see that z is directly proportional to ?; the strain experienced by the EO exceeds that of the IO . Azizi " et al . " discovered that the initial hypaxial fiber ? trajectory in the EO is greater than that of the IO . Because initial ? trajectory is proportional to the AGR, the EO contracts with a greater AGR than the IO . The resulting velocity amplification allows both layers of muscles to operate at similar strains and shortening velocities; this enables the EO and IO to function on comparable portions of the length-tension and force-velocity curves.
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