11. Accordingly, it is quite useful to combine hydrogen isotope effects with heavy-atom isotope effects . 12. Kinetic isotope effects from isotopic mass ratios can be as large as 36.4 using muons. 13. However, when temperature decreases isotope effects are more expressed and randomness plays less of a role. 14. This outcome is related to the fact that equilibrium isotope effects are usually smaller than kinetic isotope effects. 15. This outcome is related to the fact that equilibrium isotope effects are usually smaller than kinetic isotope effects . 16. The Mitsunobu reaction has also been used to label the oxygen atom in alcohols for isotope effect measurements. 17. His work on the magnitude of kinetic isotope effects is still the basis of understanding in the field. 18. Kinetic isotope effect values are a ratio of the turnover number and include all steps of the reaction. 19. This assertion has also been supported by the observation of unusually large kinetic isotope effects ( KIE ). 20. The weak isotope effects observed for most cuprates contrast with conventional superconductors that are well described by BCS theory.
