11. The nuclear charge , Z is 2 for helium. 12. As an approximation, we can estimate the effective nuclear charge on each electron by the following: 13. Pauling used effective nuclear charge to proportion the distance between ions into anionic and a cationic radii. 14. Later searching for quarks, he and George Zweig developed the chemistry of atoms with fractional nuclear charge . 15. It is possible to determine the strength of the nuclear charge by the oxidation number of the atom. 16. Thus the shielding effect is less able to counter the decrease in radius caused by increasing nuclear charge . 17. On March 23, 1971, three simultaneously detonated 15 kiloton underground nuclear charges were exploded in the Taiga test. 18. The fluorine's electron cloud is definitely less shielded from the nuclear charge and will thus be less polarizable. 19. There, they could explode very small nuclear charges -- so small that, scientists claim, they wouldn't violate the treaty. 20. The screening constant, and subsequently the shielded ( or effective ) nuclear charge for each electron is deduced as:
