For smaller photon fluxes, the photomultiplier can be operated in photon-counting, or Geiger, mode ( see also Single-photon avalanche diode ).
12.
Since the objective lenses of microscopes focus the laser beam to several micrometres in diameter, the resulting photon flux is much higher than achieved in conventional Raman setups.
13.
Then the photon flux density ( watts per metre squared usually ) of the transmitted or reflected light is measured with a photodiode, charge coupled device or other light sensor.
14.
However its total photon flux is several times lower than that of the main ring and is more strongly concentrated near the ring plane than in the forward-scattered light.
15.
The amount of isoprene released from isoprene-emitting vegetation depends on leaf mass, leaf area, light ( particularly photosynthetic photon flux density, or PPFD ) and leaf temperature.
16.
The same information about photosynthetically active radiation can be conveyed using the SI convention by stating something such as, " The photon flux was 1500 ?mol m " 2 s " 1 ".
17.
However, the high photon flux can also cause sample degradation, and for this reason some setups require a thermally conducting substrate ( which acts as a heat sink ) in order to mitigate this process.
18.
If the exact spectrum of the light is known, the photosynthetic photon flux density ( PPFD ) values in & mu; mol / s can be modified by applying different weighting factor to different wavelengths.
19.
Therefore plant biologists often quantify PAR using the number of photons in the 400-700 nm range received by a surface for a specified amount of time, or the Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density ( PPFD ).
20.
Photomultiplier-amplified photocurrents can be electronically amplified by a high-input-impedance electronic amplifier ( in the signal path subsequent to the photomultiplier ), thus producing appreciable voltages even for nearly infinitesimally small photon fluxes.
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