"' Planktotrophic "'species, on the other hand, generally have fairly long pelagic larval durations and feed while in the water column.
12.
As is the case for planktotrophic gastropod veligers, the larvae continue to feed and grow until they develop the organs and systems necessary for metamorphosis to the juvenile stage.
13.
The planktotrophic larva is considered to be the ancestral larval type for echinoderms but after 500 million years of larval evolution, about 68 % of species whose development is known have a lecithotrophic larval type.
14.
Both red and blue king crabs have planktotrophic larvae that undergo 4 zoeal stages in the water column and a non-feeding, glaucothoe stage which is an intermediate stage which seeks appropriate habitat on the sea floor.
15.
The length of the veliger stage in the natural environment is unknown and undoubtedly variable; however, in the lab, veligers of some species become competent to metamorphose in anywhere from a few days ( lecithotrophic larvae ) to a month or more after hatching ( planktotrophic larvae ).
16.
Most of these explanations can be excluded for the Monogenea, whose larvae are never planktotrophic ( therefore eliminating explanations 1 and 2 ), their larvae are always short-lived ( 3 ), Gyrodactylidae are most common not only close to melting ice but in cold seas generally ( 5 ).
17.
The relatively long time most planktotrophic larvae spend in the water column and their apparently low probability of successful recruitment led some early researchers to develop a lottery hypothesis that states animals release huge numbers of larvae to increase the chances that at least one will survive, and that larvae cannot influence their probability of success.
18.
Thorson's rule states that benthic marine invertebrates at low latitudes tend to produce large numbers of eggs developing to pelagic ( often planktotrophic [ plankton-feeding ] ) and widely dispersing larvae, whereas at high latitudes such organisms tend to produce fewer and larger lecithotrophic ( yolk-feeding ) eggs and larger offspring, often by viviparity or ovoviviparity, which are often brooded.
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