Because of the low accuracy ( circular error probable ) of early-generation intercontinental ballistic missiles ( and especially submarine-launched ballistic missiles ), second strike was initially only possible against very large, undefended countervalue targets like cities.
22.
Considering this " countervalue " attack concept, strategic planners calculated that an attack of " 400 equivalent megatons " aimed at the largest Soviet cities would promptly kill 30 % of their population and destroy 50 % of their industry.
23.
Judge Schwebel, draws a distinction between the use of nuclear weapons for countervalue, which he believes cannot be reconciled with international humanitarian law, and the tactical use of nuclear weapons against military targets which he believes, in certain circumstances, can.
24.
In nuclear warfare, air bursts are used against soft targets ( i . e . lacking the hardened construction required to survive overpressure from a nuclear explosion ) such as cities in countervalue targeting, or airfields, radar systems and mobile ICBMs in counterforce targeting.
25.
These weapons were essentially invulnerable when at sea, and offered a credible countervalue force ( against civilian targets ) although early models like the UGM-27 Polaris and UGM-73 Poseidon did not have the accuracy to attack Soviet silos and thus offered little counterforce capability.
26.
Further, the requirement to use ground burst strikes to destroy hardened targets would produce enormously more fallout than the air bursts used to strike countervalue targets; introducing the possibility that a counterforce strike would cause more civilian casualties over a medium-term view than a countervalue strike.
27.
Further, the requirement to use ground burst strikes to destroy hardened targets would produce enormously more fallout than the air bursts used to strike countervalue targets; introducing the possibility that a counterforce strike would cause more civilian casualties over a medium-term view than a countervalue strike.
28.
The opposing view, however, counters that countervalue targeting is neither moral nor credible because if an aggressor should strike first with nuclear weapons against only a limited number of a defender's counterforce military targets, the defender should not retaliate in this situation against the aggressor's civilian populace.
29.
For a full-scale countervalue / counterforce nuclear exchange between the U . S . and the Soviet Union, they predicted U . S . deaths from 35 to 77 percent ( 70 million to 160 million dead at the time ), and Soviet deaths from 20 to 40 percent of the population.
30.
The strategic concept behind the " Force de Frappe " is one of countervalue, i . e ., the capacity to inflict so much damage on a potential ( and more powerful ) adversary's population that the potential adversary will be deterred from attacking no matter how much destruction they themselves are capable of inflicting ( see Mutual Assured Destruction ).
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