A 2001 comparative study of the IMS LifeLink Health Plan Claims Database interpreted that in a large cohort of women using oral contraceptives, there was found a small, statistically significant increase in the risk of gallbladder disease associated with desogestrel, drospirenone and norethisterone compared with levonorgestrel.
32.
In addition, the testosterone analogue of 19-norprogesterone, 19-nortestosterone ( also known as nandrolone ), is an anabolic-androgenic steroid ( AAS ) and progestogen, and is the parent compound of a large group of AAS and progestins that includes norethisterone.
33.
However, androgenic progestins, such as 19-nortestosterone derivatives like norethisterone and levonorgestrel and others like, to a lesser extent, medroxyprogesterone acetate ( MPA ), when taken orally, induce IGF-1 production via activation of the androgen receptor ( AR ) in the liver.
34.
Noretynodrel, an isomer of norethisterone, was synthesized in 1952 by Frank B . Colton at Searle in Skokie, Illinois and used as the progestin in " Enovid ", marketed in the U . S . in 1957 and approved as the first oral contraceptive in 1960.
35.
The results of his small-scale trial ( on no more than 50 fertile married women ) led him to conclude that a dose of 3 to 4 mg of norethisterone acetate and'at least'0.05 mg of ethinylestradiol was both efficient and had few side effects.
36.
Alternatively, estranes such as noretynodrel and norethisterone are classified as first-generation while gonanes such as norgestrel and levonorgestrel are classified as second-generation, with less androgenic gonanes such as desogestrel, norgestimate, and gestodene classified as third-generation and newer progestins like drospirenone classified as fourth-generation.
37.
Among the testosterone derivatives, and in no particular order, levonorgestrel, norgestrel, norgestrienone, ethisterone, gestrinone, danazol, normethandrone, and norvinisterone have the greatest androgenic activity, while norethisterone and its prodrugs ( norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, lynestrenol, etynodiol diacetate, and quingestanol acetate ) have moderate activity.
38.
Among the testosterone derivatives, and in no particular order, levonorgestrel, norgestrel, norgestrienone, ethisterone, gestrinone, danazol, normethandrone, and norvinisterone have the greatest androgenic activity, while norethisterone and its prodrugs ( norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, lynestrenol, etynodiol diacetate, and quingestanol acetate ) have moderate activity.
39.
Among the testosterone derivatives, and in no particular order, levonorgestrel, norgestrel, norgestrienone, ethisterone, gestrinone, danazol, normethandrone, and norvinisterone have the greatest androgenic activity, while norethisterone and its prodrugs ( norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, lynestrenol, etynodiol diacetate, and quingestanol acetate ) have moderate activity.
40.
In terms of dosage equivalence, norethisterone and NETA are typically used at respective dosages of 0.35 mg / day and 0.6 mg / day as progestogen-only contraceptives, and at respective dosages of 0.5 1 mg / day and 1 1.5 mg / day in combination with ethinylestradiol.
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