Lubricants may contain additives known as friction modifiers that chemically bind to metal surfaces to reduce surface friction even when there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for hydrodynamic lubrication, e . g . protecting the valve train in a car engine at startup.
32.
Where \ overline { ( w'c') _ s } is the corresponding surface flux for a scalar c, and b is a coefficient of proportionality . w _ s is the mixed layer velocity scale defined from surface friction velocity and wind profile function at the surface layer top.
33.
Observational evidence shows that there is no significant time delay between the change of AAM and its corresponding change of LOD for periods longer than about 10 days . This implies a strong coupling between atmosphere and solid Earth due to surface friction with a time constant of about 7 days, the spin-down time of the Ekman layer.
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