The SI unit of mass would have been fully defined by having precisely fixed the values of the Avogadro constant and elementary charge, and by exploiting the fact that the atomic masses of bismuth and gold atoms are invariant, universal constants of nature.
42.
Where n is the conduction electron density, e is the elementary charge, m is the electron mass, \ epsilon _ 0 the permittivity of free space, \ hbar the reduced Planck constant and \ omega _ { p } the plasmon frequency.
43.
The tunnel junction capacitor is charged with one elementary charge by the tunnelling electron, causing a voltage buildup U = e / C, where e is the elementary charge of 1.6?0 " 19 coulomb and C the capacitance of the junction.
44.
The tunnel junction capacitor is charged with one elementary charge by the tunnelling electron, causing a voltage buildup U = e / C, where e is the elementary charge of 1.6?0 " 19 coulomb and C the capacitance of the junction.
45.
Here, K is the gas constant of an electron, T is the absolute temperature, ? is the elementary charge of an electron in electrostatic units, and ? its elemental mass and the i in electrostatic units, measured current per unit area.
46.
The limit to the precision of the method is the measurement of " F " : the best experimental value has a relative uncertainty of 1.6 ppm, about thirty times higher than other modern methods of measuring or calculating the elementary charge.
47.
In order for the Coulomb blockade to be observable, the temperature has to be low enough so that the characteristic charging energy ( the energy that is required to charge the junction with one elementary charge ) is larger than the thermal energy of the charge carriers.
48.
Paul Davies and collaborators have suggested that it is in principle possible to disentangle which of the dimensionful constants ( the elementary charge, Planck's constant, and the speed of light ) of which the fine-structure constant is composed is responsible for the variation.
49.
So . . . if we assume that the values of the speed of light, the elementary charge and the permittivity of free space all remain constant, then the question, in effect, becomes " does the fine-structure constant vary with time ? ".
50.
Ehrenhaft adapted his apparatus to measure the elementary charge and subsequently became involved in a bitter controversy with Robert Millikan, claiming to have measured an electric charge less than that of a single electron, Millikan's results but even as late as 1940, Albert Einstein wrote:
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