PEM was first invented by J . Badoz in the 1960s and originally called a " birefringence modulator . " It was initially developed for physical measurements including optical rotary dispersion and Faraday rotation, polarimetry of astronomical objects, strain-induced birefringence, and ellipsometry.
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By analyzing the polarization in the combined light of the planet and star ( about one part in a million ), these measurements can in principle be made with very high sensitivity, as polarimetry is not limited by the stability of the Earth's atmosphere.
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These would be to perform imaging and polarimetry of Jupiter and several of its satellites, make infrared and ultraviolet observations of Jupiter, detect asteroids and meteoroids, determine the composition of charged particles, and to measure magnetic fields, plasma, cosmic rays and the Zodiacal Light.
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PEM polarimetry has the advantage that the signal is modulated at a high frequency ( and often detected with a lock-in amplifier ), excluding many sources of noise not at the PEM operating frequency and attenuating the white noise by the bandwidth of the lock-in amplifier.
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This new system is capable of seeing weather features in greater detail than other Doppler radar systems . " Klystron 9 " combines, for the first time in history, a dual Polarimetry radar, Klystron tube, Pulse compression technology and a 1.25-million watt transmitter.
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In this case, polarimetry can be used to estimate the fine texture of a material, help resolve the orientation of small structures in the target, and, when circularly-polarized antennas are used, resolve the number of bounces of the received signal ( the chirality of circularly polarized waves alternates with each reflection ).
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Of course small missions of the Explorer program offer a lot of flexibility and launch opportunities, and the lessons learned can be applied to the same missions goals, but on a different mission ( Compare Vanguard 1 to Explorer 1 ) Just a couple years later two new X-ray polarimetry mission won a NASA award to develop a X-ray polarimetry missions.
48.
Of course small missions of the Explorer program offer a lot of flexibility and launch opportunities, and the lessons learned can be applied to the same missions goals, but on a different mission ( Compare Vanguard 1 to Explorer 1 ) Just a couple years later two new X-ray polarimetry mission won a NASA award to develop a X-ray polarimetry missions.
49.
A 2012 study reviewed ten technologies : bioimpedance spectroscopy, electromagnetic sensing, fluorescence technology, mid-infrared spectroscopy, near infrared spectroscopy, optical coherence tomography, optical polarimetry, raman spectroscopy, reverse iontophoresis, and ultrasound technology, concluding with the observation that none of these had produced a commercially available, clinically reliable device and that therefore, much work remained to be done.
50.
The initial plans were formulated by scientists at NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratory in California, where a Lead Center for western hemisphere observations was established with support from NASA; a corresponding Center for eastern hemisphere observations was funded by the Federal Republic of Germany at the Remeis Observatory ( code Photometry and Polarimetry, Radio Studies, Spectroscopy and Spectrophotometry, Meteor Studies, and Amateur Observations.
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